What causes frounce in raptors?

Frounce in raptors is specifically caused by a protozoan known as Trichomonas gallinae. This organism primarily affects the upper digestive tract of birds, leading to lesions and inflammation, which can impair feeding and overall health. It is commonly transmitted through the ingestion of infected prey or contaminated water sources, making proper understanding of its cause crucial for managing raptor health in falconry.

The other options do not accurately represent the cause of frounce. Bacterial infections and fungal diseases can affect birds in various ways but are not responsible for this specific condition. Nutritional deficiencies can lead to other health issues in raptors, but they do not cause frounce. Understanding the unique causative agent of frounce helps falconers to recognize symptoms early and take appropriate action to treat affected birds.